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Work-Family Role Conflict (2003)
Authors: Leslie Hammer, Ph.D., Portland State University, and Cynthia Thompson, Ph.D., Zicklin School of Business, Baruch College, CUNY Date: 5/12/03 Basic Concepts and Definitions Work-family conflict is a type of inter-role conflict in which the role demands stemming from one domain (work or family) are incompatible with role demands stemming from another domain (family or work) (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). According to Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964), roles are the result of expectations of others about appropriate behavior in a particular position. Role conflict is described as the psychological tension that is aroused by conflicting role pressures. Role theory suggests that conflict occurs when individuals engage in multiple roles that are incompatible (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Work-family conflict can be time-based, strain-based, or behavior based (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Time-based conflict occurs when role pressures stemming from the two different domains compete for the individual's time (e.g., requiring employees to work late with little notice might make it difficult for employees to meet family obligations, like picking up a child at daycare). Strain-based conflict occurs when the strain experienced in one role domain interferes with effective performance of role behaviors in the other domain. For example, a father who is anxious about his child's illness might not be able to fully concentrate on his job as copy editor, causing him to make mistakes in his work. Behavior-based conflict is described as conflict stemming from incompatible behaviors demanded by competing roles. For example, a manager in a financial services firm might be expected to be aggressive, unemotional, and hard-driving, but these same behaviors in the family domain would most likely lead to conflict with family members. Time-based conflict, the most common type of work-family conflict, is based on the scarcity hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that the sum of human energy is fixed and that multiple roles inevitably reduce the time and energy available to meet all role demands, thus creating strain (Goode, 1960) and work-family conflict (Marks, 1977). As can be seen in the examples above, work-family conflict is bi-directional. That is, work can interfere with family (referred to as work-to-family conflict) and family can interfere with work (referred to as family-to-work conflict). These dimensions of directionality have been identified as distinct, reciprocal constructs that have independent antecedents and outcomes (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997). For example, some research has demonstrated that work-to-family conflict is primarily caused by work-related stressors and characteristics and that it predicts family-related affective and behavioral outcomes, while family-to-work conflict is caused by family-related stressors and characteristics and predicts work-related outcomes (e.g., Frone et al., 1997). Importance of Topic to Work-Family Studies This is an important area of study for both researchers and practitioners, as more and more employees are struggling with multiple roles (e.g., employee, parent, student, caretaker of elderly parents). Research to date suggests that high levels of work-family conflict are related to dysfunctional outcomes for the individual (e.g., life dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression, poor health), for relationships (e.g., increased interpersonal conflict, divorce), and for the organization (e.g., absenteeism, tardiness, loss of talented employees). State of the Body of Knowledge Work-family conflict has been related to important individual and organizational outcomes, such as absenteeism (Barling, MacEwen, Kelloway, & Higginbottom, 1994; Goff et al., 1990; Hepburn & Barling, 1996; Kossek, 1990; Kossek & Nichol, 1992; MacEwen & Barling, 1994; Thomas & Ganster, 1995), intentions to leave work (Aryee, 1992; Burke, 1988) and decreased job, family, and life satisfaction (Bedian et al., 1988; Boles, Johnston, & Hair, 1997; Burke, 1988; Higgins, Duxbury, & Irving, 1992; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; Thomas & Ganster, 1995; Wiley, 1987). Additionally, negative mental and physical health outcomes have been related to high levels of work-family conflict and work-to-family conflict (Barnett & Rivers, 1996; Boles et al., 1997; Frone, 2000; Frone et al., 1997; Thomas & Ganster, 1995). Much of the research on work-family conflict has been based on the premise that multiple roles inevitably create strain (e.g., Chapman, Ingersoll-Dayton, & Neal, 1994; Frone et al., 1992; Goff, Mount, & Jamison, 1990; Hammer, Allen, & Grigsby, 1997), as suggested by role theory (Katz & Kahn, 1978) and role scarcity (Goode, 1960). However, there is a growing body of research which has found evidence of positive spillover, both from work to home and from home to work. The results of some of these studies support the enhancement hypothesis, which proposes that an individual's supply of energy is abundant and expandable (Marks, 1977). Multiple roles may be life enhancing in that they provide additional sources of social support, increased skills, and heightened self-esteem and well being. Baruch and Barnett (1987), for example, found that women who had multiple life roles (e.g., mother, wife, employee) were less depressed and had higher self-esteem than women and men who had fewer life roles. However, it is the quality of roles that is important. That is, the greater the quality of a person's multiple roles (e.g., having an interesting, challenging job and a happy home life), the greater their self-esteem. See Barnett and Hyde (2001) for a comprehensive overview of this line of research. Several researchers have commented on the importance of understanding factors that are associated with (and/or are antecedents of) work-family conflict. For instance, it has been documented that employees with significant dependent care responsibilities (e.g., employees who have responsibilities caring for young children, employees with large families, employees who care for dependent elders) tend to report higher levels of work-family conflict (see Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; and Scharlach & Boyd, 1989). Some studies have found that women experience greater work-family conflict (see Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1992). Research has also examined organizational factors (e.g., characteristics of the employee's workplace) that can affect work-family conflict. For example, the impact of workplace culture on employees' perception of work-family conflict has been widely noted (see Galinsky et al., 1996; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness, 1999). Recently, work-family conflict has been examined from a systems perspective demonstrating that one member of a couple's experience of work-family conflict can significantly impact their partner's experience of work-family conflict (Hammer et al., 1997). These work and family "crossover effects" of stress and strain from one member of a dyad to the other have been recently presented in a theoretical model developed by Westman (2001). Implications for Practice and Research Practitioners are interested in the extent to which various interventions, such as family-friendly policies and programs, and the supportiveness of the work-family culture (Thompson et al., 1999), actually reduce employees' work-family role conflict and how this can have significant impact on a number of work, family and personal outcomes, as mentioned above. Therefore, future research should be aimed at examining the effectiveness of such interventions. References Barling, J; MacEwen, K. E.; Kelloway, K.; & Higginbottom, S. F. (1994). Predictors and outcomes of elder-care-based interrole conflict. Psychology and Aging, 9(3), 391-397. Barnett, R.C., & Hyde, J.S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56, 781-796. Barnett, R. & Rivers, C. (1996). She works/he works: How two-income families are happier, healthier, and better-off. San Francisco, CA: Harper Collins. Baruch, G. K., & Barnett, R. C. (1987). Role quality, multiple role involvement, and psychological well-being in midlife women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 578-585. Bedian, A. G., Burke, B. G., & Moffett, R. G. (1988). Outcomes of work-family conflict among married male and female professionals. Journal of Management, 14, 475-491. Boles, J. S., Johnston, M. W., Hair, J. F. (1997). Role stress, work-family conflict and emotional exhaustion: Inter-relationships and effects on some work-related consequences. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 1, 17-28. Burke, R.J. (1988). Some antecedents and consequences of work-family conflict. In Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. In E.B. Goldsmith (Ed.) Work and family: Theory, research, and applications, 3(4), 287-302. Chapman, N.J., Ingersoll-Dayton, & Neal, M. B. (1994). Balancing the multiple roles of work and caregiving for children, adults, and elders. In G. P. Keita and J. J. Hurrell (Eds.). Job Stress in a Changing Workforce: Investigating Gender, Diversity, and Family Issues. (pgs. 283-400). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Frone, M.R. (2000). Work-family conflict and employee psychiatric disorders: The National Co-morbidity Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 888-895. Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 65-78. Frone, M. R.; Yardley, J. K.; & Markel, K. S. (1997). Developing and testing an integrative model of the work-family interface. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50(2), 145-167. Galinsky, E., Bond, T., & Friedman, D. (1996). The role of employers in addressing the needs of employed parents. Social Issues, 52, 111-136. Goff, S. J.; Mount, M. K.; & Jamison, R. L. (1990). Employer supported child care, work/family conflict, and absenteeism: A field study. Personnel Psychology, 43, 793-809. Goode, W. J. (1960). A theory of role strain. American Sociological Review, 25, 483-496. Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88. Gutek, B., Searle, S., & Klewpa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work/family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology. 76, 560-568. Hammer, L. B.; Allen, E.; & Grigsby, T. D. (1997). Work and family conflict in dual-earner couples: Within-individual and crossover effects of work and family. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50(2), 185-203. Hepburn, C. G., & Barling, J. (1996). Eldercare responsibilities, interrole conflict, and employee absence: A daily study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 311-318. Higgins, C. A., Duxbury, L. E., & Irving, R. H. (1992). Work-family conflict in the dual-career family. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 51, 51-75. Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational Stress. New York: Wiley. Katz, D. & Kahn, R. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd Ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Kossek, E. E. (1990). Diversity in child care assistance needs: Employee problems, preferences, and work-related outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 43(4), 769-791. Kossek, E. Y Nichol, V. (1992). The effects of on-site child care on employee attitudes and performance. Personnel Psychology, 45, 485-509. Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work-family conflict, policies, and the job-life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behavior-human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139-149. MacEwen. K.E. & Barling, J. (1994). Daily consequences of work interference with family and family interference with work. Work and Stress, 8, 244-254. Marks, S. R. (1977). Multiple roles and role strain: Some notes on human energy, time and commitment. American Sociological Review, 42, 921-936. Scharlach, A., & Boyd, S. (1989). Caregiving and employment: Results of an employee survey. The Gerontologist, 29, 382-387. Thomas, L. T., & Ganster, D. C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work-family conflict and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 6-15. Thompson, C.A., Beauvais, L., & Lyness, K. S. (1999). When work-family benefits are not enough: The influence of work-family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 392-415. Westman, M. (2001). Stress and Strain Crossover. Human Relations, 54(6), 717-751. Wiley, D. L. (1987). The relationship between work/nonwork role conflict and job-related outcomes: Some unanticipated findings. Journal of Management, 13 467-472. Other Recommended Readings on this Topic: Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56, 781-796. Bridges, J. S., & Orza, A. M. (1996). Black and white employed mothers' role experiences. Sex Roles, 35, 377-385. Carlson, D. S. (1999). Personality and role variables as predictors of three forms of work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55, 236-253. Christensen, K. E., & Staines, G. L. (1990). Flextime: A viable solution to work-family conflict? Journal of Family Issues, 11, 455-476. Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 65-78. Gorey, K. M., Rice, R. W., & Brice, G. C. (1992). The prevalence of elder care responsibilities among the workforce population. Research on Aging, 14(3), 399-418. Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88. Gutek, B.A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 560-568. Kopelman, R., Greenhaus, J. H., & Connolly, T. F. (1983). A model of work, family, and interrole conflict: A construct validation study. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 198-215. Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work-family conflict, policies, and the job-life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behavior-human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139-149. Matthews, L. S., Conger, R. D., & Wickrama, K. S. (1996). Work-family conflict and marital quality: Mediating processes. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59, 62-79. Mederer, H. J. (1993). Division of labor in two-earner homes: Task accomplishment versus household management as critical variables in perceptions about family work. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 133-145. Schwartz, F. N. (1989). Management women and the new facts of life. Harvard Business Review, 67, 65-76. Thomas, L. T., & Ganster, D. C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work-family conflict and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 6-15. Thompson, C. A., & Beauvais, L. (2000). Balancing work/life. In Smith, D. (Ed.), Women at work: Leadership for the next century (pp. 162-189). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. (Read for an easy overview) Voydanoff, P., & Donnelly, B. W. (1999). Multiple roles and psychological distress: The intersection of the paid worker, spouse, and parent roles with the adult child role. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 725-738. Zedeck, S., & Mosier, K. L. (1990). Work in the family and employing organization. American Psychologist, 45, 240-251. Locations in the Matrix of Information Domains of the Work-Family Area of Studies To download the matrix, click here:
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